The rapid proliferation of uncrewed aircraft systems (UAS) has introduced new and pressing safety concerns for commercial aviation. Recreational UAS users in particular may be unaware of airspace regulations, increasing the risk of an airborne collision and subsequent engine ingestion. Because UAS components, such as lithium-polymer batteries and electric motors, are significantly denser and stiffer than birds or ice, existing aviation certification standards cannot be directly applied. To address this, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sponsored the Task A43 research programme, conducted by The Ohio State University (OSU) and the National Institute for Aviation Research (NIAR). The project’s primary goal was to execute a live UAS engine ingestion test to validate computational modelling approaches used in previous airborne collision studies.
The live ingestion experiment The physical test was conducted at the Naval Air Warfare Center (NAWC) facility in China Lake, California. The research team selected a flightworthy CFM56-7B high-bypass turbofan engine, which is exclusively used on the Boeing 737 next-generation airliner, making it highly representative of modern commercial fleets. The chosen projectile was a DJI Phantom 3 standard quadcopter, selected because its key rigid components (battery, camera, and motors) are similar to newer models and because a high-fidelity computational model of this specific UAS had already been experimentally validated. The drone had a mass of 1.216kg (2.68lb).
To simulate a severe takeoff collision, the engine was operated at a fan rotational speed of 5,175 RPM. The UAS was launched into the engine at a relative translational speed of 92.6 m/s (180 knots). The target aim point was roughly 75% of the radial span of the fan blades, a location known to cause maximum fan damage while reducing the probability of core ingestion.
Computational modelling and validation A core objective of Task A43 was to evaluate how well computational simulations, performed using LS-DYNA software, could predict the real-world damage sustained during a UAS ingestion. The researchers developed a specific finite element model of the CFM56-7B fan assembly and compared its simulated ingestion results against the live test data. Furthermore, they compared the physical test against an “open representative fan assembly model” developed during previous research, which mimics the structural features of typical high-bypass engines without relying on proprietary commercial designs.
Data collection during the live test relied heavily on high-speed cameras, digital image correlation (DIC), and strain gauges mounted on the fan blades. Although lighting issues limited some of the DIC resolution, the cameras successfully captured the UAS’s orientation, velocity, and trajectory immediately prior to impact.
Damage severity and findings The live experiment resulted in significant damage to multiple fan blades. The physical results and the computational simulations aligned remarkably well, both categorising the outcome as a severity level 3 event. A severity level 3 classification indicates significant damage—such as material loss on the leading edges and visible cracking above the mid-span of the blades—but implies that the imbalance remains within the engine certification envelope, akin to a single blade-out event.
In both the physical experiment and the CFM56-7B simulation, the UAS was entirely obliterated upon impact. While the physical test exhibited a fireball explosion that the LS-DYNA software cannot computationally replicate, the kinematics of the collision and the specific blades impacted matched almost exactly. Furthermore, the steady-state imbalances, evaluated by measuring the shift in the centre of mass of the blades post-impact, were highly consistent between the physical engine model and the generic representative model.
Conclusions and industry impact The Task A43 report successfully validated the computational modelling methodology used to simulate UAS engine ingestions. Crucially, the research proved that the open representative fan assembly model behaves similarly to an actual in-service CFM56-7B engine under collision conditions.
This conclusion provides the aviation and UAS industries with a vital, non-proprietary tool for future safety testing. By relying on this experimentally validated representative model, aircraft engine manufacturers and UAS developers can safely and efficiently study foreign object ingestions, improve computational parameters, and mitigate the risks posed by the growing number of drones in the sky.
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The continent of Australia presents a unique logistical challenge, particularly across its vast, remote and strategically vital northern regions. For the Australian Defence Force (ADF), maintaining a continuous operational presence across such an expansive and unforgiving landscape demands highly innovative approaches to supply and support. Traditional methods of moving cargo are often stretched to their limits by the sheer scale of the geography.
Enter Project Jericho, the Royal Australian Air Force’s disruptive experimentation programme, which is pioneering the use of autonomous aerial logistics to build what military strategists term fighting depth. Central to this ambitious vision is the JabX, an uncrewed aerial system (UAS) based on the proven Jabiru 400 airframe, designed to transport heavy cargo over long distances. By automating routine cargo movements, the ADF aims to revolutionise its logistics tail, ensuring that dispersed teams remain supported without over-tasking the crewed transport fleet.
To understand the true significance of the JabX and the broader Jericho initiatives, one must consider the geographic and strategic realities of Australia. The north of the country is characterised by immense distances, sparse populations and challenging environmental conditions. Operating in this environment requires a robust and agile logistics network capable of connecting remote airbases, coastal areas and dispersed teams conducting littoral operations.
Traditional crewed aircraft are highly capable, but using them for routine supply runs across such vast distances is an inefficient use of valuable resources and personnel. The air force’s Jericho Disruptive Innovation (JDI) team is directly addressing these challenges. By focusing on autonomous aerial logistics, JDI is attempting to build fighting depth for the air force.
This concept involves creating layers of capability and resilience, ensuring that frontline forces have the continuous, uninterrupted support they need to sustain operations. When routine logistics are handled by autonomous systems, human aviators and crewed platforms are freed up to concentrate on complex decision-making, mission command and tasks that only people can perform, particularly in demanding or contested environments. As the deputy director of disruptive experimentation, Wing Commander Keirin Joyce, noted, these technologies are vital to ensuring the air force is ready for future challenges. He said: “By taking on routine logistics missions, autonomous aircraft will free up our aviators and crewed platforms for the tasks only people can do – particularly in demanding or contested conditions”.
The practical manifestation of this autonomous logistics vision is Project Camel Train, an initiative focused on prototyping and deploying UAS corridors across northern Australia. These dedicated flight corridors are intended to link remote airfields and coastal bases into a seamless, precision delivery network. The primary workhorse chosen for this ambitious undertaking is the JabX. Developed in collaboration with RFDesign, an avionics company based in Brisbane, the JabX is a heavily modified version of the popular Jabiru 400 airframe. The Jabiru 400 is already well regarded in light aviation circles, and adapting it for autonomous flight represents a pragmatic and highly efficient approach to capability development. The JabX is specifically designed for long-haul flights carrying heavy loads, featuring robust avionics, structured pre-flight and in-flight workflows, and an advanced graphical user interface that allows operators to maintain constant mission oversight.
The development process for the JabX highlights the immense benefits of using an existing, proven airframe rather than building a new design from the ground up. The director of Jabiru, Michael Halloran, explained that turning the J400 into an optionally crewed aircraft removes the vast time and resources typically required to develop a completely new platform. This approach drastically accelerates the development of autonomy systems because a safety pilot can be kept on board during the initial phases of test flying. Once the autonomous systems are fully developed, tested and proven, transitioning to a dedicated autonomous logistics platform is relatively straightforward. The final autonomous version will share 80% commonality with the crewed JU30 aircraft, meaning that production can be easily scaled up using existing commercial production lines and supply chains.
Integrating autonomous aircraft into shared airspace is not simply a technological challenge; it is a profound regulatory and safety hurdle. The Jericho team recognises that for autonomous logistics to become a reality, these robotic aircraft must navigate crowded or contested skies as safely as human pilots do. Every single component and system of the JabX is tested step by step as part of a strictly regulated pathway. This rigorous testing begins with human pilots operating in controlled settings. As the technology is proven and the regulatory framework permits, the aircraft gradually transition to higher levels of autonomy. The process is described as careful and transparent, keeping safety at the absolute centre of the programme while still enabling rapid innovation. This step-by-step methodology ensures that the ADF can build fundamental trust in the systems before deploying them for live operations across the vast northern corridors.
A critical enabler for long-range autonomous cargo operations is the ability of the uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV) to safely separate itself from other aircraft sharing the airspace. To solve this complex problem, the Jericho team established Project Arena, a companion initiative to Project Camel Train
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However, I’m still a bit miffed that my old haunt from the 80s—63 Squadron—has been transitioned into the RAF Regiment. Seeing the change earns a bit of a “mutter and grumble” from me.
The story so far needs a place to live for future reference. I think this is a fairly comprehensive list. Do let me know if I missed any.
The RAF Regiment’s role in counter-drone operations is a modern extension of its historical mandate to provide low-level air defence for RAF airfields. The core of this capability lies with 34 Squadron RAF Regiment, which was formed at RAF Yatesbury on 19 November 1951. The squadron initially provided close air defence using 40mm Bofors guns during the Suez Canal Crisis and later in Cyprus during the EOKA terrorist campaign. During the cold war, it converted to a light armoured role using Scorpion combat vehicles before returning to ground-based air defence.
The defining shift in the squadron’s history occurred in the summer of 2022, when 34 Squadron officially re-roled as a dedicated counter-uncrewed aircraft system unit. Today, alongside 63 Squadron RAF Regiment and the 609 Royal Auxiliary Air Force Regiment, it forms the No 2 Counter-Uncrewed Aerial Systems Wing based at RAF Leeming. Operating under the Global Enablement and Combat Readiness Force commands, the wing is currently the only fixed-site counter-drone capability for UK defence.
The counter-drone arsenal: detect, disrupt, and destroy
The RAF’s counter-drone scheme is built upon a layered detect, disrupt, and destroy methodology, designed to preserve air operations and protect infrastructure. The equipment encompasses several highly integrated technologies.
ORCUS: Emerging from the Defence Equipment and Support’s Project Synergia, ORCUS is the UK military’s specific configuration of Leonardo’s Falcon Shield. Designed to defeat low, slow, and small threats, the modular system fuses 3D multi-mode surveillance radar with radio frequency direction finding. For visual confirmation, it employs the NERIO-ULR gyro-stabilised turret, which features high-definition daytime and thermal cameras to provide positive identification at extreme ranges.
NINJA: Developed by the US Air Force Research Laboratory and integrated into ORCUS by Leonardo, NINJA provides a surgical cyber effect. It electronically takes command of a hostile drone by hijacking its radio frequency links, allowing RAF operators to safely land the rogue drone for forensic exploitation.
Guardian: Acting as a long-range electronic sniper rifle, the Leonardo Guardian system provides an additional electronic warfare layer by jamming a drone’s command and control or GPS navigation links.
Rapid Sentry: When electronic soft-kills are insufficient against autonomous or swarming drones, the RAF relies on Rapid Sentry. This kinetic system fires the Lightweight Multirole Missile manufactured by Thales UK. Capable of speeds above Mach 1.5, the laser beam-riding missile can destroy fast-moving aerial threats at ranges exceeding 6km.
Shadow ISTAR: In complex environments, the ground-based sensors are reinforced by Shadow R1 and R2 reconnaissance aircraft, which use advanced electro-optical and electronic intelligence suites from high altitude to track drones back to their operators on the ground.
Timeline of deployments (2018 to 2026)
The RAF’s counter-drone framework has evolved rapidly from domestic civil-contingency support to a high-readiness expeditionary combat force.
December 2018: The RAF deployed an early Leonardo predecessor to the ORCUS system to locate drones. Shortly afterwards, the system was deployed to London Heathrow Airport.
June 2021: ORCUS systems, operated by the RAF Regiment, were deployed to the G7 summit in Carbis Bay, Cornwall.
August 2021: The integration of the US NINJA technology into the ORCUS system was successfully evaluated at the RAF Spadeadam electronic warfare range in Cumbria.
Summer 2022: The counter-drone framework was activated as a national standby capability to monitor airspace during the Queen’s Platinum Jubilee and the Birmingham Commonwealth Games.
November 2024: US Air Force bases in the UK, specifically RAF Lakenheath, RAF Mildenhall, and RAF Feltwell. The Combat Readiness Force deployed approximately 60 personnel with the ORCUS system. They were supported by Shadow ISTAR aircraft from RAF Waddington and US F-15E Strike Eagles.
October 2025: The threat expanded into hybrid warfare against NATO allies. A specialist team from No 2 Counter-Uncrewed Aerial Systems Wing deployed to Copenhagen, Denmark, at the Danish government’s request, securing two major European summits.
November 2025: An RAF detachment deployed to Belgium to protect sensitive sites, including airports in Brussels and Liege, and military bases such as Kleine-Brogel.
February to March 2026: The mission transitioned into active kinetic combat. Following an Iranian-made Shahed-type drone strike on RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus, the RAF deployed the Rapid Sentry system to the region. On the night of 23 to 24 March 2026, RAF Regiment gunners executed the most effective defensive action to date against persistent one-way attack drones. During this period, four gunners achieved historic drone ace status by successfully shooting down five or more hostile drones.
April 2026: Amidst escalating conflict in the Middle East, the UK deployed the Rapid Sentry system to Kuwait. The deployment aimed to defend critical national infrastructure, including an oil refinery at Mina al-Ahmadi and a vital water desalination plant, following deliberate drone and missile strikes by Iran.
This is the wrong Squadron 151, but same airfield. Lundy Island where just beyond Hawks made circles in the sky with target banners behind them.
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